sacred art:onavillu

‘Onavillu’: A spiritual tradition revered through the ages

‘Onavillu,’ a ceremonial bow that is offered to the deity at the Sri Padmanabha Swamy temple here as part of the annual rituals during Onam festival season. Considered a symbol of prosperity, the ceremonial bow is in great demand from devotees who take it home to be carefully preserved.
The art and craft of making the Onavillu is the sole preserve of the traditional artists of the Vilayil Veedu family at Karamana in Thiruvananthapuram.. The ‘Onavillu’ is a broad piece of wood, tapering on both sides, on which miniature paintings of Ananthasayanam, Dasavatharam, Sreerama Pattabhishekam, and Sreekrishnaleela are portrayed.
The consecration of ‘Onavillu’ at the temple is an age-old tradition that has continued over the years from the 16th century. The main artists who continue the work today include Umeshkumar, Binkumar, and Sudarsanan. The family members observe a 41 days penance prior to commencement of the work. The ‘villu’ is available in three measures — 4.5, 4 and 3.5 feet long and 6, 5.5 and 4 inches wide.
The wood of Kadambu, maruthu, jack fruit, and aanjili trees are preferred for making the ‘villu.’ The wood is cut to the required dimension before applying the colours. The red tassels used to adorn the ‘villu’ are made by the convicts in the central jail at Poojappura here.
The ‘villu’ are first offered to the family deity at the Valiya Veedu for three days. They are then taken to Sri Padmanabha Swamy temple on Thiru Onam day and displayed at the Natakasala before being offered to the deity. While the Ananthasayanam version of the villu is consecrated to Lord Padmanabha, the one with the Dasavathram painting is offered to Lord Narasimha and the ‘villu’ showing the Krishnaleela is dedicated to Lord Krishna.
The one with the painting of Sreerama Pattabhishekam is consecrated to the idol of Sree Rama. The ‘villu’ are removed on the third day. The Temple Trust then distributes the ‘Onavillu’ to devotees.

kummatti kali- the mask dance

Kummatti kali - The Mask Dance

Kummattikali is the famous colorful mask-dance of Kerala, South Malabar in particular. During the festival of Onam, Kummattikali performers move from house to house collecting small gifts and entertaining people.Most interesting facet of Kummattikali is a peculiar way in which Kummati performers clad themselves.

They don a heavily painted colourful wooden mask depicting faces of Krishna, Narada, Kiratha, Darika or hunters. These masks are usually made out of saprophyte, jack fruit tree, Alstonia Scholaris, Hog Plum tree or the Coral tree. Dancers wear skirts woven out of plaited grass. Some performers cover their whole body with bunches of grass for a more bushy appearance. The semblance is made more joyful with the 'talla' attached externally to the mask giving the appearance of a toothless open mouth.

Dancers also hold and manipulate long sticks of residuary agricultural produce called 'Kummattikali', it is from this that the dance derives its name. Their dance is related to Shaiva myth. 'Thamma' (an old woman) walks in front with the help of a stick. Thamma is symbolic of mother of every being and everything.

Rhythm for the dance movements is provided by vibrating the string of a bow like instrument called onavillu. Arecanut wood is used to make the bow and the strings are beaten with a narrow bamboo stick.

Kummatti dancers are a sight to watch as they move around from house to house collecting jaggery, rice, or small amounts of cash. Onlookers, specially children take great delight in their performance.

Themes of Kummattikali are mostly taken from the stories of Ramayana, Darika Vadham, the story of Shiva and folk tales like Manjan Nayare Pattu.

It may be noted that folk art of Kerala can be classified into two broad categories - ritualistic and non-ritualistic. Ritualistic can be further divided into - Devotional, performed to please a particular god and goddess and Magical Art Forms. Theyyam, Thira, Poothamthira, Kanyarkali, Kummattikali, etc. are some of devotional art forms. Kummatti dances are more rampant in Trichur District, during Onam. Pristine or original form of Kummattikali can be seen in the Bhadrakali temple in Palghat district.

ritual art forms of kerala

Theyyam :

A ritual dance form of Kerela, glorifying the goddess. Themes revolve around the triumph of the goddess over the demon Daruka and other evil characters. Always performed by men, they also enact female roles wearing exotic make up and colorful costumes.
Theyyam also known as Kaaliyattam, it is a ritual dance popular in north Kerala or the erstwhile Kolathunadu. Theyyam incorporates dance, mime and music and enshrines the rudiments of ancient tribal cultures which attached great importance to the worship of heroes and the spirits of ancestors. Of the over 400 Theyyams performed, the most spectacular ones are those of Raktha Chamundi, Kari Chamundi, Muchilottu Bhagavathi, Wayanadu Kulaveni, Gulikan and Pottan. These are performed in front of shrines, sans stage or curtains, by persons belonging to the Vannan, Malayan and other related castes.
'Thudangal' (the beginning) and 'Thottam' (the invocation) are the introductory rituals of the Theyyam or the Thira, as it is known in south Malabar. The headgear and other ornamental decorations are spectacular in sheer size and appearance. Karivalloor, Nileswaram, Kurumathoor, Parassini, Cherukunnu, Ezhom and Kunnathoorpadi in north Malabar are places where Theyyams are performed annually from December to April.

Patayani :

Patayani is a week- long ritual dance, held in Kaali temples on the banks of the Pamba river during the Malayalam months of Meenam and Medam (March - April). The choice theme of the dancers is the slaying of the demon Daarikan by the goddess Kaali. The steps and movements of the dance vary according to each Kolam or character. Thappu is the major percussion instrument accompanied by a few Chendas. Patayani masks are made with the fresh spathe of arecanut palms. Bhairavi (Bhadrakaali), Yakshi, Pakshi (bird) and Kaalari (Siva) are the main characters. Various communities targetted for criticism are represented by jestures. Kadammanitta, Kadalimangalam and Othara in Pathanamthitta district are famous for annual Patayani performances.

Poothanumthirayum :

This ritual offering to Goddess Kaali is performed in many places of South Malabar. A troupe of dancers dress up as Kaali (the Thira) and the accompanying spirits (the Poothams) who were created along with the goddess for the destruction of the evil demon, Daarikan. The Thira wear masks while the spirits don semi-circular wooden crowns. The dance is performed from house to house and on the premises of village shrines between November and May every year.

Mudiyettu :

Mudiyettu is a ritual dance performed in some Kaali temples of Ernakulam and Kottayam districts (central Kerala). The dance celebrates the goddess's triumph over the demon Daarikan. Mudiyettu is performed by the Kuruppu or Marar who belong to the temple bound communities of Kerala.
The Kalamezhuthu, a ritual drawing of the goddess Kaali is made on the floor with dyed powders, before the performance. Then the chorus sings hymns in praise of the goddess.
Before the actual performance, the dancer erases the Kalam with tender palm fronds. The performer in the role of Kaali is aided by 'Koimpata Nayar', the local guide and Kooli, the attendant.
Legends say that Daarikan, the epitome of evil, challenged Kaali to a duel. Kaali slayed Daarikan, with the blessings and grace of Lord Siva.
The performers of Mudiyettu are all heavily made up and wear gorgeous attire with conventional facial paintings, tall headgears etc, to give a touch of the supernatural. The wooden headgear has a mask of Kaali. An ornamental red vest and a long white cloth around the waist complete the attire

Koothu :

Koothu is a socio-religious art performed in the Koothambalam or the Koothuthara of temples, either independently or as part of Kootiyattam. It is a solo narrative performance interspersed with mime and comic interludes. The Chakkiar dons the role of ' Vidushaka' or the wise jester. Through his inimitable narration of stories from the epics ( The Ramayana and The Mahabharatha), the Chakkiar satirises the manners and customs of the time. No one is above the butt of his ridicule. His wit ranges from innocent mockery to veiled innuendoes, barbed pun and pungent invectives. Koothu is intermittently accompanied by the percussion instrument Mizhavu.
The Nangyar Koothu is a variation of the Koothu performed by the Nangiars or the female members of the Chakkiar community. This is a solo dance drama mainly centred on the legends of Sree Krishna. Verses are sung and interpreted through mime and dance. The mudras, though the same as in Kootiyattam, are even more elaborate. The art form is still performed in temples like Vadakkumnatha temple at Thrissur , Sri Krishna temple at Ambalappuzha , Koodal Manikyam temple at Irinjalakkuda and Kumaranalloor temple at Kottayam.

Arjuna Nritham :

Arjuna nritham (the dance of Arjuna) is a ritual art performed by men and is prevalent in the Bhagavathy temples of Kerala. Arjuna, the most valiant of the five heroic brothers - the Pandavas - of the epic Mahabharatha, was also a renowned singer and dancer and is said to have propitiated goddess Bhadrakaali by a devotional presentation.
Arjuna nritham is also called Mayilppeeli nritham as the costume includes a characteristic garment made of mayilppeeli (peacock feathers). This garment is worn around the waist in a similar fashion as the uduthukettu of Kathakali . The performers have their faces painted green and wear distinctive headgears. The all night performance of the dance form is usually presented solo or in pairs.
The songs which are strictly rhythm based are called Kavithangal and deal with various themes of the Puranas (ancient Hindu scriptures). Each Kavitham is composed to suit a specific rhythm. Before each song the dancers explain the intricacies of the particular rhythm about to be employed and how this rhythm is translated into dance movements.
The various dance movements are closely similar to Kalarippayattu techniques. Percussion instruments like the chenda, maddalam, talachenda and ilathalam (cymbal) form the musical accompaniment.

Kannyarkali :

Kannyarkali, also known as Desathukali, is a folk art exclusively practised by the Nair community of the Palakkad area. It owes its origin to the pursuit of martial arts in this region which was under constant threat of attack from neighbouring Konganadu.
Kannyarkali was born when dance and comedy were pitched in to add vigour and colour to the martial training sessions. The art form combines the agile movements of martial arts with the rhythmic grace of folk dance performed around a nilavilakku.
Performed during March-April in temples as well as in places called the ' Thara', a venue for informal gatherings, this art form is accompanied by devotional folk songs and the loud beat of percussion instruments. The orchestra includes ilathalam or cymbal and percussion instruments like chenda, maddalam, edakka and udukku.
A team of Kannyarkali dancers varies from six to twenty in number and a performances usually lasts for four days. Each day's performance is known by a different name: Iravakali, Anadikoothu, Vallon and Malama. The last day's performance is presented by hill tribes, in which women also participate.

Velakali :

This spectacular martial dance is performed by men in some of the temples of southern Kerala. The dancers, clad in the traditional clothes and colourful headgear of the medieval Nair soldiers, engage in vigorous movements and dexterous sword play, to the accompaniment of an orchestra comprising the maddalam, ilathalam, kombu and kuzhal. Velakali originated in Ambalappuzha where Mathoor Panicker, chief of the Chempakasserri army, promoted it to boost the martial spirit of the people. The dance form is a regular feature of the annual festivities at the Ambalappuzha Sree Krishna temple in Alappuzha district

Kalamezhuthu :

The kalam is a unique drawing also called dhulee chithram or powder drawing. The artist uses the floor as his canvas. Kalamezhuthu pattu is performed as part of the rituals to worship and propitiate gods like Kaali, Ayyappan or Vettakkorumakan.This ritualistic art is a common feature of temples as well as noble households. The kalams or drawings are erased at the end of the ritual to the accompaniment of musical instruments like ilathalam, veekkan chenda, kuzhal, kombu and chenda.The coloured powders used for the kalam are prepared from natural products only. The pigments are extracted from plants - rice flour (white), charcoal powder (black), turmeric powder (yellow), powdered green leaves (green), and a mixture of turmeric powder and lime (red). It often takes more than two hours to finish a kalam drawing with appealing perfection. Decorations like a canopy of palm fronds, garlands of red hibiscus flowers and thulasi or Ocimum leaves are hung above the kalam.The figures drawn usually have an expression of anger, and other emotions. Kalamezhuthu artists are generally members of communities like the Kurups, Theyyampadi Nambiars, Theeyadi Nambiars and Theeyadi Unnis. The kalams drawn by these people differ in certain characteristics.The Kalamezhuthu is a forty-day ritualistic festival beginning with the first of Vrischikam (Scorpio) in most Bhagavathy temples in Kerala

Margom Kali :

Margomkali is a ritual folk art of the Syrian Christians of Kottayam and Thrissur districts. A dozen dancers sing and dance around a lighted wick lamp ( Nilavilakku), clad in the simple traditional white dhoti and sporting a peacock feather on the turban to add a touch of colour.This is an allegorical enactment with the lamp representing Christ and the performers his disciples. The performance is usually held in two parts and begins with songs and dances narrating the life of St.Thomas, the apostle. It then takes a striking turn with a martial play of artificial swords and shields.The narration is stark without musical accompaniments. The songs date back to a period much before the Portuguese invasion. Today, Margomkali is only performed as a stage item by women.

Theeyattu :

Theeyattu is a solo dance-drama performed in front of the Kalam or Dhooli Chitram (ritual drawing with coloured powders). It is enacted in some Bhagavathy temples of Thiruvalla, Kottayam, Thripunithura and neighbouring areas. The ritual starts with the invocation of Lord Ganapathy, Lord Siva and goddess Saraswathy, after which the performer dons a crown smaller but similar to the one used in Mudiyettu.
The most popular story narrated through a Theeyattu performance is that of the duel between goddess Kaali and the demon Daarikan. The dance form is usually performed by a small group of temple bound communities called the Unni. Theeyattu is still a ritual offering made every Friday at the Pallippurathu Kaavu temple near Kottayam town.

performing arts of kerala

Kathakali :

Kathakali is the most popular sacred dance-drama of Kerela. Kathakali evolved across the last 400 years. This classical dance of Kerela requires lengthy and rigorous training to attain complete control of the body and a sensitivity to emotion so as to be able to render all its nuances through facial expressions and hand gestures.
Kerala owes its transnational fame to this nearly 300 years old classical dance form which combines facets of ballet, opera, masque and the pantomime. It is said to have evolved from other performing arts like Kootiyattam, Krishnanattam and Kalarippayattu. Kathakali explicates ideas and stories from the Indian epics and Puranas.
Presented in the temple precincts after dusk falls Kathakali is heralded by the Kelikottu or the beating of drums in accompaniment of the Chengila (gong). The riches of a happy blending of colour, expressions, music, drama and dance is unparallelled in any other art form.
Mohiniyattam :
Literally meaning the dance of the celestial enchantress, this sensual dance form of Kerela, contains elements of Bharathanatyam as well as the classical and folk dances of Kerela. Mohiniyattam is usually performed as a solo dance and is very lyrical in its rendering.
Slow, graceful, swaying movements of the body and limbs and highly emotive eye and hand gestures are unique to this dance form. The simple, elegant gold-filigreed dress, in pure white or ivory, is akin to the traditional attire of the women of Kerala. The origin of Mohiniyattom is rooted in Hindu mythology. Once the ocean of milk was churned by the gods and demons to extract the elixir of life and immortality. The demons made away with this divine brew.
Lord Vishnu came to the rescue of the panicky gods and assumed the female form of an amorous celestial dame Mohini. Captivating the demons with her charms, Mohini stole the elixir from them and restored it to the gods. This dance was adopted by the Devadasi or temple dancers, hence also the name 'Dasiattam' which was very popular during the Chera reign from 9th to 12th century.
Thullal :

Thullal is a classical solo dance form, of Kerela, which comes closer to contemporary life, and is marked for its simplicity, wit and humour.
Staged during temple festivals, the performer explicates the verses through expressive gestures. The themes are based on mythology. This satiric art form was introduced in the18th century by the renowned poet Kunchan Nambiar .
The make up, though simple, is very much akin to that of Kathakali. The Thullal dancer is supported by a singer who repeats the verses and is accompanied by an orchestra of mridangam or thoppi maddalam (percussions) and cymbals. There are three related forms of Thullal - Ottanthullal , Seethankanthullal and Parayanthullal - of which the first is the most popular. The three are distinguished by the costumes worn and the metre of the verses.
Thullal is usually performed in the premises of temples during festivals and provides for thought and entertainment to the thousands of people who gather at these events.
Koodiyattom :
Koodiyattam is a dance traditionally enacted in temples. Koodiyattam is Kathakali's 2000 year old predecessor and is offered as a votive offering to the deity.
Kootiyattam literally means "acting together". This is the earliest classical dramatic art form of Kerala. Based on Sage Bharatha's 'Natyasasthra' who lived in the second century, Kootiyattam evolved in the 9th century AD.
Kootiyattam is enacted inside the temple theatre, there are two or more characters onstage at the same time, with the Chakkiars providing the male cast and the Nangiars playing the female roles. The Nangiars beat the cymbals and recite verses in Sanskrit, while in the background Nambiars play the Mizhavu, a large copper drum.
Vidushaka or the wise man, a figure parallel to the Fool in Shakespearean plays, enacts his role with the liberty to criticise anyone without fear. The costume of the jester sets him apart from the rest. The Kootiyattam performance lasts for several days ranging from 6 to 20 days. Themes are based on mythology.
The Koodal Manickyam temple at Irinjalakkuda and the Vadakkumnatha temple at Thrissur are the main centres where Kootiyattam is still performed annually. Ammannoor Madhava Chakkiar is an unrivalled maestro of this rare art.
Thiruvathirakali :
Thiruvathirakali is a dance performed by women, in order to attain everlasting marital bliss, on Thiruvathira day in the Malayalam month of Dhanu (December- January). The dance is a celebration of marital fidelity and the female energy, for this is what brought Kamadeva (the god of love) back to life after he was reduced to ashes by the ire of Lord Siva. The sinuous movements executed by a group of dancers around a nilavilakku, embody 'lasya' or the amorous charm and grace of the feminine. The dance follows a circular, pirouetting pattern accompanied by clapping of the hands and singing. Today, Thiruvathirakali has become a popular dance form for all seasons.
Oppana :
A dance form essential to the wedding entertainment and festivities of the Malabar Muslims. Maidens and young female relatives sing and dance around the bride, clapping their hands. The songs of Mappilappattu, are first sung by the leader and are repeated by the chorus. The themes are often teasing comments and innuendoes about the bride's anticipated nuptial bliss. Oppana is often presented as a stage item today.
Kolkkali :
A folk art mainly of the agrarian classes, Kolkkali is a highly rhythmic dance with the dancers wielding short sticks. The rhythm of this dance is set by a harmonious synchronisation of the tapping of the feet to the striking of sticks. The movement is circular and the artists sing as they dance and strike the sticks in unison. Though the dancers break away to form different patterns, they never miss a beat. In Malabar, Kolkkali is more popular among Muslim men.
Duffmuttu :
Duffmuttu is also known as Aravanamuttu. It is a group performance popular among the Muslims of Malabar. Duffmuttu is staged as a social event during festivals and nuptial ceremonies.
The artistes beat on a quaint round percussion instrument called the Duffu, the leader of the group sings the lead, while the others form the chorus and move in circles. The songs are often tributes to martyrs, heroes and saints.
Duffmuttu can be performed at any time of the day and has no fixed time limit.
Krishnanattom :
A spectacle for both the scholar and the simple rustic. The visual effect is enhanced by varied and colourful facial make-up with larger-than-life-masks, made of light wood and cloth padding, for certain characters. The characters who do not wear masks have specific facial colours applied within the frame of a white chutti. The predominant colours used are dark green, flesh tint and deep rose. Most of the characters wear red vests and flowing 'Uthariyams'. The characters of Krishna, Arjuna and Garuda wear dark blue vests.
The traditional performance lasts for eight days and covers the whole span of Krishna's life from his birth to 'Swargarohanam' or ascension to the heavens. Orchestral accompaniments are Maddalam, Ilathalam and Chengila. Krishnanattom, though boasting of a unique choreography, assumes more the nature of a Morality Play, seldom presuming to lay claim to the theatrical sophistry so integral to Kathakali and Kootiyattam

history of kerala

Origin


Mythological Background

- Parasurama - founder of Keralam.Parasurama, the short-tempered warrior-sage regarded as the incarnation of Vishnu. After defeating the Kshathriya Kings, the sage approached the wise men for penance. As a Self-mortification he was advised to create a land for Brahmins. He readily agreed and meditated at Gokarnam, (considered to be the end of land).

After getting the booms from Varuna, the God of the Oceans and Bhumidevi, the Goddess of earth, he proceeded to Kanya Kumari (Cape Comorin) and threw his battle-axe northwards across the waters. The waters subsided and what was left over was called the land of Parasurama, that is today's Kerala.


Scientific Theology

Geologists have pointed out that the elevation of Kerala from the sea was the result of some seismic activity, either suddenly or gradually.Another Thoughts prevailing in scientific society is the rivers of Kerala emptying into the Arabian seas bring down enormous quantities of silt from the hills. The ocean currents transport quantities of sand towards the shore. The coastal portions could well be due to the accumulation of this silt over thousands of years.


The Early Civilisation


The earliest inhabitants of Kerala were the Pulayas, Kuravas and Vetas. It is at a much later time that migratory Aryan populations from the north landed and subjugated them through caste system.By the beginning of the Christian era, the Cheran Dynasty was spread up to Western Ghats. The armies of Mauryan Dynasty could not enter the lands of the Cheras. With time the rule of Cheran Dynasty declined, it coincided with the rise of the Brahmins in Kerala. By the 10th century, they were powerful entity from Gokurnum (North Kerala) to the Cape Comorin.

These land owning class of Brahmins were well on their way to great wealth and power. To consolidate their power, they developed Caste System (segregation between classes of people). Lands were leased out to next higher castes for share-cropping, and these in turn would further be leased out to those lower on the caste hierarchy and to non-Hindus. The lowest castes of course were only laborers and were traded along with the land. In such a rigid hierarchy, the all-powerful Namboothiries were the unquestioned rulers.
The Christians who had arrived from the Middle East in the 3rd century AD and the Muslims who arrived in the 8th century were generally traders and were not involved in this social segregation and generally kept aloof from the ambit of caste politics.

The Jews who arrived Kerala in the early years of the Christian era were given privileges to trade and became an influential part of the melting pot of Kerala's population. Gradually Kerala entered a phase of feudal chieftains or warlords (naduvazhis).

The Namboothiries anointed some. At the turn of the 11th century AD there was a power struggle in the caste system supported by the Landlords and ruled by the warlords. This in turn gave rise to instability in the absence of strong central leadership. Wars and conflicts were common. Ultimately three warlords emerged with some semblance of authority in their regions - the Zamorin of Calicut (Samuthiri of Kozhikode) to the North, Moopins of Perimpadappu (near modern day Kochi) in the central regions and chieftain of Kollam.

This is precisely what the Europeans who found a sea-lane to the fabled land of spices and gold did. There was nothing anyone could do to stop the next five centuries of colonial rule.

Discovery of India - European conquest

Ancient Kerala occupied a unique place in the commercial world. There are traces of teak found in the ruins of Ur, which must certainly have come from the Malabar Coast.

This means trade flourished around 3000 BC. Cotton from this region was a favourite in Egypt; the Phoenicians visited the coast of Malabar around the same time to trade in ivory, sandalwood and spices. King Solomon is said to have sent his commercial fleet to Ophir which is said to be somewhere in Southern Kerala. Muziris (Kodungalloor or Cannonade) was reputed to be the ancient world's greatest trading center in the East for such highly prized possessions as pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, ginger and other spices. Pliny, the younger is said to have lamented the fact that trade with the East was draining the treasury of Rome. The trade flourished by ships riding on the monsoon winds from Africa and back to Arabia, from where the overland caravan took the prized items to the markets along the Mediterranean ports.India was known as fabled land of spices and gold. It was during this time Europe was busy in exploration and Voyages to unknown land. Route to India was a dream of most of the voyager. Many attempts were made, but most could reach only up to "Cape of Good hope" in Africa. In 1498, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese naval Captain found the easiest way to India by bribing the Arab pilot when his ship anchored off Kenya at Port Malindi. Following the centuries old route taken by the Arab traders and riding on a monsoon wind, he sailed the Sao' Gabriel to land at Kappad near the town of Calicut or Kozhikode. The entire history of the East was to change from that day.
The Zamorin or Samuthiri received the Portuguese, (known locally as parungees) warmly. Trade concessions were granted to the Portuguese. But sensing the rivalries from the Arabs and the local kings, the Portuguese immediately set about engaging themselves in consolidating their positions at sea. There was resistance from the local Kings. Notable among the Samuthiri's Admirals is Kunjali Marakkar, still a revered hero in Kerala. He succeeded in checking the Portuguese expansionism to certain extent. But could not hold for long against the supremacy of Portuguese weapons and sea prowess. An interesting sidelight is the Portuguese behavior towards the thriving community of Christians in Kerala. Tradition has it that these Christians were converted by St. Thomas the Apostle in the 1st Century AD. The Portuguese were annoyed that the local Christians were more Hindus in their outlook, culture and traditions and never heard of the Pope in Rome. In 1599,the Synod of Diamper (present day Udayamperoor near 14 Kms from Kochi) decreed that all Christians should revert to the Pope in Rome as the Supreme Spiritual head and not the Pontiff at Antioch. This led to a revolt by a section of Syrian Christians. History depicts that the revolters took oath by tying themselves to a Cross-at Kochi on 15 January 1653. This is known as the "Koonan Cross Oath" and is still revered as a turning point among the Syrian Christians. But the Portuguese had some success in proselytizing and did manage to convert some communities into Latin Catholics. Today this community is one of the influential sections in Kerala.

Arrival of Dutch

The Portuguese finally met their match in the Dutch. The Dutch known locally as Lanthakar, was in the race for evicting the Portuguese from the lucrative Eastern spices trade. Strategic alliance with the Samuthiri helped the Dutch to drive out the Portuguese once and for all by 1663.They proclaimed the Kochi Maharaja as the titular head and drove the Portuguese out. With aim of total control over the Eastern Spices trade, the Dutch East India Company was set up in 1602. Stefan Van Hegena set sail with 13 ships and reached Kannur (Cannanore) in 1604. But from then on it was the same old story of the former allies falling out. This phase ended with the Dutch gaining undue advantages and gaining foothold over most of the coastal areas and towns, prominent being Kannur and Kochi. By 1717 a treaty was established. But it could not save the Dutch from defeat in 1741 at the hands of a resurgent king of Thiruvithanmkur, Marthanda Varma in the battle of Kolachel. By 1795, the Dutch were so weakened, that the British did not have much trouble evicting them permanently from the Kerala landscape once and for all. The Portuguese and the Dutch introduced many novel agricultural crops to Kerala, notable among them being pineapple, papaya, tapioca, rubber and scientific farming methods for coconuts. To this day, the Kerala farmers are critically dependent on these crops for survival in the agrarian economy of the state.
The Bolgatty palace at Kochi, the Dutch Governor's mansion (later the British Resident's mansion) and the Dutch Palace at Mattancherry, Kochi are some of the reminder of Dutch conquest on India soil. During this time, the most famous ruler was Marthanda Varma, King of Thiruvithamkur. His success started with the subjugation of the local warlords and Dutch. Later he expanded his rule by subjugating all principalities of the southern tip of Kerala up to Kodungalloor up in the North. He was a great warrior and administrator. He carried out revolutionary reforms in his kingdom like converting the captured lands into state lands, centralising foreign trade to generate government incomes, improving living conditions of farmers, and most importantly reducing the powers of the government servants who till then were exclusively from certain castes and families. He took an unusual step of employing competent people from all castes and for the first time recognised competence over birthright.

Britisher's Entry

It was after Marthanda Varma, the Britisher's conquest reached Kerala. With the defeat of Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1799, the British became the de facto rulers of North Kerala. The rise of the British was bitterly opposed by the local warlords or naduvazhis. In 1802 Pazhassi Raja, a local chieftain revolted and fought a determined campaign against the British. In a similar fashion, Velu Thampi Dalawa also rose up against what was seen as British attempts at total control of local power centres. Velu Thampi Dalawa had allied himself with the Dewan of Kochi Paliyath Achan in the armed campaign against the British. But these were isolated and did not have the necessary military might to fight a sustained campaign against an emerging World Super Power. After almost a year of sporadic battles, Velu Thampi Dalawa fled the kingdom. With that the power the British residents grew immensely. The Maharaja had to be content with an honorary role in the affairs of State. Once the British military effectively crushed these revolts, no more was heard from these naduvazhis or warlords again.During the same time there was a different story as far as the peasantry were concerned. There were serious outbreaks of unrest especially in North Kerala against the landlords and the British. These are now called the moppilla lahala or Muslim Revolt. It was ruthlessly suppressed. Today it is a part of the local folklore.

Freedom Struggle

The first signs of freedom struggle surfaced after First World War. In 1922 the students protested against the fee hike in educational institutions.

Khilafat Movement brought out the issue more forcefully. Hindus and Muslims stood as one against the British and the Landlords in the Malabar region. Severe police action and Martial law followed. The British gained complete supremacy by ruthless deployment of police, notably the Malabar Special Police, which to this day is a feared symbol of colonial oppression.

The Salt Satyagraha found its echo here. The Vaikom temple entry Satyagraha for permitting lower castes entry into the temple gained the recognition as a direct challenge to the existing political and hierarchical supremacy of the rulers and by extension the British rule. The Samyukata Rashtriya Congress consisting of an alliance of Christian's -Muslims - Ezhavas (a powerful community of Kerala) formed an alliance to seek reservations in Government. This is the first time community based party system came into Kerala's landscape. The Thiruvithamkur State Congress was founded by Pattom Thanu Pillai to fight against the high handedness of the last Dewan of Thiruvithamkur, Sir C P Ramaswamy Iyengar (popularly known as Sir CP). The movement started in 1938 and led to widespread violence all over the state. The Congress was outlawed. After Independence, on 01 Jul 1949, a new state "Thirukochi" was formed consisting of old princely states of Thiruvithamkur and Kochi, moves towards reunification of Malayalam speaking population. The Malayalam-speaking regions of Malabar and Thirukochi were joined together as one state on 01 November 1956 and christened KERALA.

Post Independence

Kerala's post independence history is a saga of Leftist movement and Indian National Congress. The deep social, communal and economic division in Kerala was on the boil. The Communist Movement which initially began as naxalite movement, waged a full might against the Suppression. EMS Namboothiripad, AK Gopalan and P Krishna Pillai were the unquestioned leaders of the Communist Movement. By 1957, they had become the first democratically elected Communist Government anywhere in the world. The story of Kerala after 1959 is a story of many governments of the Congress-led or Left-led parties coming and going at regular intervals. Kerala has seen no fewer than 17 Ministries till now.